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History: The Acts of the Apostles Catholic Letters and Apocalypse
The Pentateuch is the first five books of the Bible, called "Torah" in the Hebrew Scriptures. Though we often call these books "The Law," Torah does not mean "law," but "teaching". Basic to the Torah is the idea of the covenant. A covenant is an agreement. [n the Bible covenants are special, because God is one of the parties to the covenant. Biblical covenants have three parts: (1) a statement about God's saving act (what God brings to the agreement); (2) a statement about what God expects from humanity in response, (3) a sign or symbol as a reminder of the covenant. The Torah is, in part, a record of God's covenant and the implications of the covenant for human life in society. Genesis begins with the creation, setting the covenant in the context of God's rule over the entire universe. The first covenant is with Adam and Eve, representatives of all humanity, and includes the understanding that human beings will be responsible stewards of all of creation. The second covenant is with Noah, the promise that the world will never again be destroyed by flood. Then the biblical account focuses on one particular person, Abraham, who enters into covenant with God and is given the promise that he and his descendants will become a blessing to all humanity. Through the narratives dealing with Abraham and Sarah, Isaac and Rebekah, Jacob and Leah and Rachel, and Joseph the questions of faithfulness to the covenant and hope for the fulfillment of God's promises take concrete form. Exodus centers on the escape of God's people from Egypt under the leadership of Moses and the making of the great covenant at Mt. Sinai. The parts of the covenant are clear: God's gracious saving act is seen in Passover and Exodus; the expectation of human response is summarized in the Ten Commandments; and the Feast of the Passover is the great sign and reminder. Moses, Aaron, and Miriam are both the leaders of God's people and the models of struggle and faith. Leviticus takes its name from the Latin word for "book of the Levites." The major concern of the book is the holiness of the community of Israel. Holiness means to be set apart by God for a special purpose. Holiness is expressed in proper forms of worship and living out the love of God in the routine of daily life. The "Holiness Code" (chs. 17 - 27) is a good example of how worship and justice mingle together in the life of Israel. Numbers is named for the census that begins the book. The narrative part of the book is the wilderness journey from Kadesh-barnea to the Promised Land. Included are the great accounts of the spies entering Canaan, the 40 years of wandering, and the miracles of Moses. Finally come the conquests of the Kingdoms of Sihon and Og in the Transjordan, and the story of Balaam. The book ends with Israel prepared to enter the Promised Land under the leadership of Joshua. Deuteronomy is written as Moses' farewell speech before the tribes enter the Land. It reviews God's acts of salvation and the implications of salvation for life. The book itself was apparently found in the temple in the reign of Josiah (621 B.C.). The discovery sparked a great religious reform. One of the real concerns of Deuteronomy is how to make old traditions relevant for a new time. The most important statement of belief is the "Shema", found in 6:4-5.
The historical books include Joshua, judges, Ruth, 1 and 2 Samuel, l and 2 Kings, l and 2 Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah, Tobit, Judith, Esther, and 1 and 2 Maccabees. These books are history in the best sense, that is, they do more than present data about past events They present the data in a form that tries to explain what the events mean and how God was working in them. Joshua, Judges, 1 and 2 Samuel, and 1 and 2 Kings record the history of the period from the death of Moses to the fall of the southern kingdom of Judah, from somewhere before 1200 B.C. to 586 B.C. This period includes the settlement of Israel in the land, the tribal government under the judges. the time of seeking a king, the golden age under David and Solomon, the division and downfall of the kingdoms. All through the narrative runs the understanding of God's judgment and redemption in political and social life. 1 and 2 Chronicles cover much of the same history from a different perspective. The books of Ezra and Nehemiah pick up the account of Israel and Israel's God in the period after the Exile, the time of the rebuilding of Jerusalem and the renewing of the covenant in a harsh new time. Joshua marks the end of the Exodus period. Israel enters the land under a new generation of leaders, conquers the hill country, and enters into a great ceremony of covenant renewal at Shechem. Judges is a collection of accounts of tribal heroes and heroines from the period between the time of Joshua and the time of Samuel. These are accounts of charismatic leaders who, in times of crisis, were called by God to save a part of the tribes from the oppression of an enemy. They teach an understanding of history in a pattern of faithfulness, unfaithfulness, judgment, and salvation in the political world. Ruth emphasizes God working through a foreign woman to bring forth King David. It carries a strong warning against excluding anyone from a place among God's people. 1 and 2 Samuel record the end of the period of the judges and the rise of the kingship in Israel, with all the accompanying tensions between old ways and new ways. The narratives include the lives and rules of Samuel, Saul, and David. 1 and 2 Kings are the history of the monarchy from Solomon to the Exile. Solomon's glory, the building of the temple, the division of the kingdom, the destruction of the two kingdoms, and the rise of prophecy (Elijah and Elisha) are important themes in these books. Faithfulness to God is defined in social and political terms as well as religious. 1 and 2 Chronicles were written after the destruction of Jerusalem and try to answer the question Why did God choose to punish his people in such a way?" The answer is found in history. God's people were unfaithful and what happened in social and political history is an expression of God's judgment on an unfaithful people. Ezra picks up the themes of Chronicles and argues for national purity and exclusiveness. Nehemiah is the account of the rebuilding of the walls of Jerusalem and the reestablishment of the covenant. It, too, argues for exclusiveness. Tobit is about a righteous Jew, Tobit, who is in exile in Nineveh, and Sarah, who is tortured by a demon in Media. God sends the angel Raphael to help both Tobit and Sarah. Tobit's son, Tobias, goes with Raphael to Media, binds the demon, and marries Sarah. The religious value of the book is in the emphasis on both the national and personal faith of Judaism lived out by the central characters. Judith begins with a war against the Jews led by the Assyrian general Holofernes. Judith, a beautiful and pious widow, leaves her besieged village, goes to Holofernes and promises him victory. She then kills him, goes back to her village, and arranges an attack on the Assyrian camp. The Assyrians are defeated and driven out of the country. Judith ranks with Deborah, Esther, and Miriam as a heroine and instrument of- God. Esther is a delightful account of a Jewish heroine whose faithfulness saved her people from certain death 1 and 2 Maccabees are histories from the period of revolt against Syria beginning in 168 B.C. and culminating in the cleansing of the temple and the establishment of Judea as an independent kingdom under the Hasmonean (or Maccabee) rulers. First Maccabees is a history of the revolt from the accession of Antiochus IV in 175 to the death of Simon the High Priest in 132. It records the clash between Judaism and Hellenism and is the primary source for the history of the period. Second Maccabees focuses on tile responsibility of the Hellenizers for profaning the temple. It dwells on the deaths of martyrs and develops the idea of the resurrection.
The books of poetry include the Psalms and Song of Solomon. The wisdom books are Job, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, the Wisdom of Solomon, and Sirach (Ecclesiastic us). This does not mean all poetry in the Bible is found in Psalms and Song of Solomon, nor that all wisdom is found in only five books. Poetry abounds in the Torah and the Prophets. Much of the wisdom literature is written in poetic form. On the other hand, wisdom is also found throughout the Bible. The Psalms were the hymn book and prayer book of the second temple, and continue to be used in the same way by the Jewish community today. Traditionally, the Psalms were ascribed to David, but a reading of the subheads shows there are several collections of Psalms, including many by David, but also collections credited to the sons of Korah, to Asaph, to Solomon, even to Moses. There are also many kinds of Psalms, just as there are many types of hymns in a modern hymnal. There are songs of praise and thanksgiving, songs of ascent which were sung going up to the temple, royal psalms, prayers, laments, and so on. The Psalms are one of the favourite books for Christians and many of the biblical passages that are most meaningful come from the Psalms. Song of Solomon is a collection of love poems, which are beautiful expressions of human love at its best. They remind us that God is present in all of life. Wisdom literature takes several different forms. Sometimes it is short sayings on how to cope with life. The theme is usually how virtue can triumph over wrong. Sometimes wisdom takes the form of riddles. Or wisdom can be reflections on the meaning of life or on the life of faith (what we might call philosophy). The heart of wisdom literature is a theology of creation and life. God has made the world and everything in it. We can learn something about God and life by observing nature. Because God is in all of life, we are called to live joyfully as well as responsibly. A great deal of wisdom literature deals with how to live the good life, that is, the life God approves. Job begins with the undeserved suffering of the patriarch job and reflects on the meaning of suffering and God's relationship to one who suffers unjustly. Job suffers most because he refuses to deny his own integrity or the integrity of God. Proverbs is a collection of sayings about how to live the good life it also contains the great passage on the personification of wisdom as God's handmaid, delighting in the works of creation (8.22-31 and ch. 9). Ecclesiastes reads almost like a diary of a spiritual journey. The author deals with ultimate questions of life and death, while talking about the routines of daily life. He reflects on what his life has meant from youth to old age, and how God has played a part in that life. The Wisdom of Solomon teaches that the wicked may seem to prosper, but they face a future judgment. The righteous live forever. The book uses wisdom to help Jews face persecution and resist the temptations of a pagan culture. Sirach (Ecclesiasticus) was written about 180 B.C. in Jerusalem. It is a book about ethics in public and private life. The true measure of character is in virtue rather than money. It relates wisdom to the Torah and to worship.
Prophets in Israel were persons who interpreted the actions of God in the events of history They tried to keep alive the memory of the Exodus and reinterpret the meaning of the ancient faith for new times, to proclaim God's will (based on the Sinai covenant) in national crises. After the national disasters of the fall of Israel (722) and Judah (598-586) they began to speak words of hope and comfort. The writings are called the major and minor prophets. The terms `major' and 'minor' have to do with the size of the books, and not the importance of the message. In the Hebrew canon, the prophets are Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the Book of the Twelve. Daniel is included among the writings in the Jewish Scripture, but we list that book with the prophets. In roughly chronological order, the prophets are: Amos preached in the northern kingdom of Israel around 750 B.C. His message included an emphasis on social justice as an expression of the covenant, the idea of the coming Day of the Lord, and the hope of a remnant. He emphasized that the covenant with God carried obligations as well as promises. Hosea was active from about 745 to perhaps 722 B.C. He described the relationship between God and Israel as a marriage. His social themes were the danger of injustice at home and reliance on military alliances abroad. He talked about the compassion of God, and of God's tender longing for God's people. Isaiah of Jerusalem was a counsellor to kings from 740-701 B.C. During this time there were two major crises-the war with Syria in 734 and the Assyrian threats from 734-701. Isaiah saw those events as expressions of God's rule over the nations. The cause of the wars, he said, is social injustice. God is working out punishment for his people in the international arena. Some of the best-known passages in this book are those dealing with the longing for a Messiah and Isaiah's description of his own call The latter part of the book of Isaiah is a collection of great hymns and poems about the hope of restoration at the end of the Exile. Included in the hymns are four about the Servant of Gad, who suffers for the sake of Israel. Micah preached in Jerusalem somewhere between 725-705 B.C. He cried out against the injustice practiced in both Samaria and Jerusalem but also lifted the vision of a great day of peace and salvation, with Jerusalem as the center of God's Kingdom. Micah 6.8 is a good summary of the teachings of the prophets of the eighth century. Zephaniah For sixty years after Micah the kings of Judah practiced idolatry and oppression. Zephaniah's preaching began the great reform that culminated in the finding of Deuteronomy and national covenant-renewal. His message was one of condemnation of idolatry and injustice. Jeremiah preached from 627-586, the longest career of any of the prophets. Over so long a career, his message changed as world events changed and called forth new understandings of the work of God. It was a time of trouble for Judah and Jerusalem, ending with the destruction of the city and the temple. Jeremiah continued the great themes of the earlier prophets, calling for true piety, social justice, and loyalty to God rather than military alliances. His teaching deepened the idea of repentance, and he introduced the vision of a new covenant written on the heart. After 598, he began to preach of hope and new beginnings following a time of punishment. Lamentations is a collection of poems of deep bitterness and grief over the destruction of Jerusalem and the temple by the Babylonians in 586 B.C. It is traditionally attributed to Jeremiah and is printed immediately after his book in most Bibles. Baruch contains four major sections. One has reflections on repentance after the fall of Jerusalem. Another is a poem an wisdom, and the third offers words of hope in a time of despair and persecution. The fourth is the Letter of Jeremiah, which was written in Jeremiah's name in the 4th century B.C. The theme is that idols are not real. Joe( lived in a time of a great locust plague, which he saw as the beginning of Judgment God. His message is primarily a call to national repentance. Habakkuk preached between 625-600, a time when the Babylonians were an the march and overrunning all the little kingdoms of the Middle East. He questioned the justice of God in allowing the Babylonians to triumph, and finally received the answer that "the righteous live by their faith." Nahum was written at the time of the fall of Nineveh in 612 His work includes a hymn about a Gad who is slow to anger but who will punish those who defy him.
The word Gospel is from the Anglo-Saxon "godspell", meaning good news. Ultimately the word comes from the Greek euangelion, also meaning good news. Gospel can mean the good news preached by Jesus, or the good news preached about Jesus. These two meanings are the ones found in the Bible. Gospel can also mean the books that contain the memories o( Jesus, the gospels we find in our New Testaments. Gospels are not biographies. They are accounts of the life and teaching of Jesus, but they are also reflections on who Jesus is and what he means for the world. Each of the gospel writers wanted to say something specific about the meaning of Jesus and carefully selected materials and arranged them to carry his own particular emphasis. The gospels contain a great deal of historical information, but that information is always interpreted by the writers to show Jesus as Son of God and Savior of the world. There are four gospels. Matthew, Mark, and Luke are called Synoptic gospels, because they follow a common synopsis, or outline. These three gospels can be studied in parallel because they follow the same basic outline, use many of the same words and the same order. Much of modern biblical study is based on the assumption that Matthew and Luke used Mark as a basic source and outline. The Gospel of John is entirely different from the other three. It does not follow the same outline, has a three-year ministry for Jesus instead of one year, and contains long reflections about the meaning of Jesus instead of short sayings and parables. Mark is probably the oldest of the gospels. Tradition says it was written in Rome by John Mark and contains the memories of Peter. The crucifixion and resurrection are the key to understanding who Jesus is - nearly one-half of the gospel deals with these events. Mark does not have any birth narratives, but begins with the preaching of John the Baptist. Matthew begins by placing Jesus within the whole story of salvation. Jesus is son of Abraham and son of David, the fulfillment of all the promises to God's people. The teaching material in Matthew is organized into five great sections, the best-known of which is the Sermon on the Mount. Many have said Matthew saw Jesus as a second Moses, giving a new Torah to God's people. Luke's special interest is in the oppressed and outcasts of society, especially women and the poor. His gospel begins with the births of John the Baptist and of Jesus. It has the only story of Jesus between his birth and ministry. the episode in the temple at the age of twelve. Some of the best-loved parables - the good Samaritan, the prodigal son, the rich man and Lazarus -are found only in Luke's gospel. John has less narrative and no parables, but a series of long reflections on Jesus as divine Son of God. The gospel begins with a great hymn on the "Word" who was always God and became flesh for the salvation of the world. That word is Jesus. John also contains a series of miracles as signs pointing to Jesus, and the "f AM" sayings, which express what Jesus means in a series of striking metaphors.
History: The Acts of the Apostles Acts is a unique book in the Scripture. [t is really volume 2 of Luke's work and tells the story of the beginnings of the church. It begins with the ascension of Jesus, has the record of the giving of the Spirit at Pentecost, and the life of the early church. (t is not, however, the story of the whole church, or even of all the apostles. [t focuses on the beginnings of the church, then on the work of Peter, and finally on the work of Paul. Luke wanted to show how the church spread from Jerusalem all over Palestine and then to the Gentiles. Luke reports a series of episodes in the life and faith of the early church to show how Christianity rose out of Judaism and has deep roots in the Jewish faith. He shows something of the struggle the disciples felt in moving out in a mission to Gentiles. One of the major themes in the book is the role of the Holy Spirit in guiding and strengthening the church as it spread across the Mediterranean world. Another theme is the message that Christianity is not dangerous to the authority or power of the Roman Empire. More than one-half of Acts is devoted to the ministry of Paul and his travels to preach the good news.
Paul's letters arc the oldest Christian documents we have. The first of them was written within 25 years of Jesus' death, and the last may have been written before any of the gospels. These letters are also the largest collection of writings by any one person in the New Testament. They are in order of length, with the longest letter to a church first, and the letters to individuals last We can learn from Paul's letters a great deal about Paul's faith and his understanding of what Jesus Christ means for the life of the ordinary Christian. We can learn some of the problems that churches, and persons were facing because of their faith and what Paul said was an answer to the problem. We can learn a lot about Paul as a person and how his faith can help us as persons. Romans was written to pave the way for Paul's visit to a church he had never seen, but whose help he needed as he began to preach the gospel in the western Mediterranean world. Romans is one of the fullest statements of Paul's faith. He tries to show how Christianity is rooted in Judaism, but is a faith for all of humanity. Romans is a book full of the power and grace of God and has been a source of inspiration and renewal in the church from earliest times to the present. 1 and 2 Corinthians are the most typical of Paul's letters. They were written in response to specific concerns, in this case division in the church and how Christians are called to live a way of life different from pagans. 1 Corinthians has great sections on love in the church (12-14) and the resurrection (15). The accounts of the resurrection and of the Last Supper in 1 Corinthians are the oldest written accounts of those events we have. 2 Corinthians is a combination of harsh differences and rejoicing over reconciliation. Because of the differences in tone, many scholars believe that parts of at least two letters are in our present 2 Corinthians. Chapters 3-5 are a meditation on what it means to be an apostle. Galatians contains important information about Paul's own life and about the beginnings of the church. [t is also a key to understanding Paul's faith in Christ, justification, and the relationship between Judaism and Christianity. Ephesians is a meditation on the purpose of God in reconciling all things in Christ. The church is a part of the purpose of God, called to bring unity to the world, as Christ brought unity to the church. Philippians is a warm, personal letter giving thanks for a gift from the church and encouraging the church to be faithful. The hymn quoted in 2:5-11 is a powerful statement about Christ coming into the world for salvation. Colossians was a church confused by false teaching. Paul wrote to try to straighten out that confusion. He says that Christ is the ruling power in the universe. He also gives guidance for the true spiritual life. 1 and 2 Thessalonians are possibly the earliest writings of the New Testament. Persecution had compelled Paul to leave Thessalonica, and in his letters he tells Christians there how they ought to live, and to await the Lord's return with constant diligence. 1 and 2 Timothy and Titus are known as the "Pastoral Epistles", since they are concerned about the care of the church. They reflect the beginnings of organizational life in the church. Paul wants to show how true faith results in a way of life in both the church and the world. There is guidance for the young pastors who are trying to lead the church. Philemon is the only surviving private letter of Paul. It is a plea for Philemon to forgive the runaway slave Onesimus and receive him back as a brother in Christ. Hebrews was written to Jewish Christians, saying that Christ is the perfect sacrifice and the true High Priest. Hebrews emphasizes the humanity of Jesus more than any other book in the New Testament, except the gospels. It also emphasizes the role of Jesus as the mediator between God and humanity, the one who brings forgiveness once and for all.
Catholic Letters and Apocalypse James was written to Jewish Christians to remind them that faith, if it is real faith, leads to faithful living. We are to show our faith in the little acts of daily living. Church tradition says the book was written by James, a relative of Jesus (see Mt. 13:55). 1 Peter was written to encourage the church in Asia Minor in a time of persecution. The key idea of the book is hope in Christ. It is this hope that sees us through tough times . Because we have hope in Christ, we are called to live a life of hope and love in the world. 2 Peter is a reflection of the belief in the early church that Jesus would return at any moment It calls the church to be faithful and continue to expect Jesus to return. 1, 2, and 3 John are (1) a sermon, (2) a letter to a church, and (3) a letter to an individual. 1 John urges Christians to return to fundamental loyalties. It stresses that Jesus came in the flesh, probably against heretics who were teaching that Jesus only seemed to be human. The writer says that believers experience eternal life now, that to know God is to obey God's commandments, and that the mark of eternal life is love. 2 John was written to a church to emphasize the commandment of love. 3 John is a letter to a church leader warning against a false teacher. Jude was written to warn against a doctrine that said God's grace is an excuse for immoral living. Revelation is a book about the struggle between good and evil and the ultimate triumph of Christ and the church. [t was written in a time of persecution, probably around A.D. 95. Writing in code, the author encourages his readers to stand fast in the face of persecution, for only the faithful will share in the final triumph of Christ. Yes, he says, things are bad and they will get worse, but Christ will triumph. Softie of the great hymns and prayers of the early church are found in this book.
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